Russian language in the modern world. Geographical encyclopedias See what "Geographical encyclopedias" are in other dictionaries
He can be called the father of Russian science and culture. In every industry in which Mikhail Vasilyevich worked, he managed to leave his bright mark and bring many great discoveries into the world.
Speaking of Mikhail Vasilievich
Distinguished from his peers by his innate thirst for knowledge, at an early age he learned to read and write.
At the age of 19, the young man goes to Moscow and, posing as a visiting nobleman, is enrolled as a student at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where he subsequently receives good theoretical training and masters Latin perfectly. Then, in 1736, he was transferred to the Academic University of St. Petersburg, from where, over time, he would be sent to Germany to study mining and metallurgy. M.V. Lomonosov continued his education in Freiburg, where he began to improve his knowledge in practice.
Throughout his scientific career, he boldly defended the interests of the people and demanded that education become accessible not only to the upper class, but also to the peasantry. It was on the initiative of Mikhail Vasilyevich that a university was created in Moscow, which to this day proudly bears the name of the founder.
About linguistic activity in general
Mikhail Vasilievich made a significant contribution to the development of linguistics. Despite his immersion in specialized knowledge, he also found time for philological work. Upon returning to Russia, in 1757 he published the first Russian grammar, where he revealed orthoepic and language based on his observations of living speech. It is important to note that the first who approached the description of the grammatical features of Russian was Lomonosov. As a linguist, he dealt with this from a scientific point of view; it was he who was also the first to consider the concepts of morphology, syntax and word formation. Based on his “Russian Grammar”, Russian language textbooks were published for the first time.
Lomonosov also made a huge contribution to the development of rhetoric. His guide to eloquence was the first Russian-language book of its kind. He also established a classification of parts of speech, considered issues of spelling and punctuation, and translated many scientific terms into Russian.
Philological merits of Lomonosov
A significant contribution to the development of the Russian language and literature was made. As a linguist, he was concerned with the systematization of its grammatical, spelling and stylistic features. Thanks to Mikhail Vasilyevich, an important reform was carried out in relation to the Russian literary language, and a system of versification was approved, which has survived to this day.
Being a linguist, he talked about the Russian language as a great asset. Mikhail Vasilyevich was the first who began to give academic lectures in his native language.
He sought to enrich the literary language, make it accessible, understandable and at the same time unique. We will consider Lomonosov as a linguist. We will now talk briefly about the philological merits of this great man.
“Russian Grammar” by M. V. Lomonosov
Lomonosov's main merit is the creation of a solid foundation for the formation of a new Russian language. The famous work of Mikhail Vasilyevich called “Russian Grammar”, which was published in 1755, is also associated with its development. Its compilation is truly the greatest of the merits that Lomonosov brought. As a linguist, for the first time in “Russian Grammar” he tried to distinguish between such concepts as Russian and
To isolate each language, to recognize it as completely independent in relation to the other - Lomonosov adhered to this principle in his work. As a linguist, he relied on certain scientific techniques that helped him accurately distinguish between the Russian language and Church Slavonic. This served as a worthy beginning for the further development of domestic literature. As a linguist, Lomonosov based his research on the features of language: he took a long list of words or phrases, compared and contrasted them with each other. And then, based on the results obtained, he made the appropriate conclusions.
Science continues to this day based on Lomonosov’s research techniques, which have not undergone any significant changes.
The theory of “three calms” by M. V. Lomonosov
Based on his research techniques, the great Russian reformer released the theory of “three calms,” which found direct application in the creation of a new literary language. Mikhail Vasilyevich established the general principle of interaction between different styles and genres in linguistics. Each “calm” was characterized by its immediate area of application. Lomonosov used his theory to describe stylistic processes in language. As a linguist, he followed the path of constant combination and likening of that beautiful and valuable that is in both languages.
"High Calm"
Thus, words that were used in the creation of all kinds of odes, songs, poems, speeches or solemn speeches were attributed to “high calm”. This style can rightfully be considered majestic. However, words of such calm were extremely rarely used by people in everyday speech, but a literate person could understand them.
"Medium Calm"
“Middle Calm” was intended for writing satirical plays, ironic friendly letters or historical works. It is characterized by the predominance of Russian-language words with the rare addition of Slavic ones.
"Low Calm"
“Low Calm” is filled with Russian words that are not in the Slavic language. With its help, comedies, songs, and descriptions of “everyday affairs” are created. In this style, preference was given to Russian, common words.
All the pathos of the above-mentioned theory of Lomonosov was characterized by the need to recognize the rights of the Russian language and literature.
Lomonosov's contribution to literature
Speaking about him as an outstanding philologist, one cannot fail to mention his literary merits. After all, Mikhail Vasilyevich studied all kinds of theories with their further application in practice along with other sciences.
While in Germany, he writes an essay on unresolved issues regarding Russian versification. In this letter, he introduces his amendments to Trediakovsky’s reform, expanding it with new poetic meters, such as anapest, dactyl and amphibrachium. Unlike other poets of that time, he does not neglect the use of various rhymes in his works. The second part of his letter was an ode to the capture of Khotin, which the great reformer dedicated to the heroism of the Russian army. It differed significantly from the works of his predecessors.
Lomonosov's contribution to the formation of the scientific terminological base of the Russian language
Lomonosov made a valuable contribution to Russian science. He spoke of language as a great value of the people, its eternal heritage. Mikhail Vasilyevich was confident that the Russian language is very rich and multifaceted, that in it you can always find the necessary words to denote certain terms or concepts.
The reformer fought for the purity and perfection of the Russian language, trying to rid it of “foreign language.” Therefore, he either literally translated the concept into Russian, or simply selected equivalents suitable for it. Thanks to the scientist, words such as energy, magnitude, particles, experience, quickly became entrenched in Russian terminology. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was distinguished by exceptional courage, tenacity and endless ingenuity when creating a scientific terminological base. As a linguist, he made a huge contribution by establishing Russian-language terminological concepts.
First of all, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, as a Russian linguist, was outraged by the abuse of foreign words in literature or in everyday life. He was deeply annoyed by the nobles, who, having barely learned to understand a few words in French, immediately began to insert them wherever they wanted. Lomonosov pointed out that the aimless adoption of words of foreign origin poses a danger to the competent education of national culture. In view of this, he urgently called for honoring the beauty and versatility of the native language and resisting those who introduce “those obscenities” into it.
And finally
As a linguist and a famous reformer, they are still used in scientific activities. This great man was the first to appreciate the depth, richness, power and uniqueness of the Russian language. In his writings, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov spoke of literature as the art of words.
He took many steps in the formation of a new literary language and outlined the prospects for its further development.
Mikhail Vasilyevich served for the benefit of the people. It was on his idea that a university was founded in Moscow, which today is world famous. He also managed to create a terminological base, the enrichment of which, following Lomonosov, was carried out by famous domestic scientists in subsequent decades. This is exactly what Lomonosov, the Russian linguist, was like. And to this day we remember this great man and use his works.
Alexander Khristoforovich Benkendorf is known primarily as the head of the III (security) department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery. Behind the glory of the chief gendarme and strangler of freedom during the gloomy reactionary reign of Nicholas I, his glory as a hero of the Patriotic War of 1812 and an active participant in a foreign campaign was forgotten.
Alexander Khristoforovich came from an ancient noble Riga family, which received the Swedish nobility in 1660. The future chief gendarme was born in 1782. Thanks to family connections, the start of his career was ensured. Alexander graduated from the boarding school of Abbot Nicolas (one of the most aristocratic and prestigious educational institutions in St. Petersburg) and at the age of 17 he was already an aide-de-camp of Emperor Paul I with the rank of ensign of the Semyonovsky Life Guards Regiment.
Young Benckendorff was one of those aristocrats who viewed family connections, wealth, etc., not so much as a privilege and a means of distinguishing themselves, but as an opportunity for better performance of their duty. He served alternating between military and civilian missions. So in 1802 he was part of the secret expedition of Georg Magnus Sprengtporten, which was supposed to “travel around Asian and European Russia for the purpose of military-strategic inspection” (and reached Yakutsk with a detailed survey of the area), and in 1808-1807 he was at the Russian embassy in Paris. Between these missions, in 1805-1806, he participated in the war against Napoleon I, and in 1809 he volunteered for the Russian-Turkish War, in which he received the Order of St. George, IV degree, for the battle of Ruschuk on June 20, 1811 (this order was usually awarded for personal bravery).
At the beginning of the Patriotic War, Benckendorf was an aide-de-camp under Emperor Alexander I. This position did not at all involve fussing with papers: the adjutant carried command orders to Bagration’s army, that is, he often moved alone, while the lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, where the war began , could not be called friendly.
Immediately after the Battle of Smolensk, the first flying (partisan) detachment of Ferdinand Wintzingerode was created, Alexander Khristoforovich Benkendorf commanded the vanguard in this detachment. After the enemy left Moscow, Benckendorff became its commandant and established life in the devastated city, and then returned to the active army.
In the company of 1813, he again fought in a flying detachment, only now not on Russian, but on German soil, then he led this detachment and participated in the capture of Vorben, Berlin, in the battles of Gros Veren and Dennewitz. In the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig he led the left wing of General Wintzingerode’s cavalry.
Then independent actions followed again. At the head of a separate detachment, Benckendorff cleared Holland and then Belgium of French troops. At the same time, his rank increased. In the battle of Craon on March 7, 1814, he already commanded the entire Russian cavalry. He finished his overseas campaign as lieutenant general and adjutant general (the latter honorary rank gave the right to personally report to the emperor).
Thus, before becoming the head of the security department, Alexander Khristoforovich Benkendorf proved himself to be a talented and active military man. He was a real hero of the Patriotic War and foreign campaigns, one of the many heroes of the Russian army.
Encyclopedia article- genre of scientific style. The purpose of an encyclopedic article is to provide reliable information about an object, phenomenon or person to the reader who, turning to the article, wants to become familiar with this concept. The author of an encyclopedic article must be an expert in this field of knowledge.
An encyclopedic article is built according to the strict rules of the genre. We will now look at the features of this genre.
The main thing in an encyclopedic article is to provide objective information about a given subject/phenomenon/person
The author of an encyclopedic article cannot resort to his own assessments, express his opinion, or share personal experiences and emotions. His task is to select the most reliable and important material on the problem, to give an objective and fairly complete description of the phenomenon being analyzed.
The encyclopedic article uses literary language in a strict form
The language of the encyclopedic article does not tolerate the inclusion of colloquial, colloquial, slang, dialect words and clerical words.
Spoken words are used in informal conversation, in the article they should be replaced by neutral equivalents. For example, the colloquial phrase “ jackfruit bad, they just smell disgusting, it looks like rotten onion" in the language of an encyclopedic article it will sound like this: "jackfruit fruit emit a strong unpleasant odor, reminiscent of the smell of rotten onions".
Colloquial vocabulary- these are words that go beyond the scope of literary language; their use in a scientific style is strictly prohibited.
Dialect words limited in their use to a certain territory. Dialectical words should not penetrate the text of an encyclopedic article (unless, of course, it is directly devoted to the concept of dialecticism or a related concept). Examples of dialectisms: blueberry instead of blueberry, thin instead of bad, poor quality, kochet instead of rooster etc.
Jargonisms– words whose use is limited to a socially closed group. For example, a striking example is the “language of computer scientists” - people whose field of activity lies in the computer field: buggy - stopped working, program - computer program, keyboard - keyboard, cracked program - a program that requires renewal of the license key. Jargon cannot be used in the text of an encyclopedic article.
Stationery characteristic of the official business style of the language, their use is also limited to one functional area. Avoid them scientifically. For example, the phrase “... with making a copy, what kind at this forwarded …” includes three obvious bureaucracies (in bold). It can be transformed into a phrase of literary language: “... with making a copy, which is then sent...».
If you are in doubt whether a word is common literature or not, check the explanatory dictionary: a colloquial word will have the mark decomposition., vernacular go with the mark simple., dialectal – dial., slang – slang., clericalism – office., and neutral – nate. or will not have litters at all.
The style of an encyclopedic article has other linguistic features characteristic of the language of the scientific style:
Use of linguistic features characteristic of the scientific style of presentation
These primarily include the following:
- Predominance passive constructions, impersonal and indefinitely personal sentences.
For example, " Of the annual species, the most commonly cultivated is the common or kitchen pumpkin." (Compare with the active construction: " People most often cultivate the common or kitchen pumpkin.»).
- Predominance verbs in the present tense.
Eg: " use», « grows», « applies», « are used" etc.
- Nouns in the text prevail over verbs. Otherwise, this feature of the scientific style is called the nominal narrative style. Pay attention to the proportion of verbs and nouns in the following phrases typical of scientific language:
“Yoghurt is a fermented milk product with a high content of nonfat milk solids, produced using a mixture of starter microorganisms – thermophilic lactic acid streptococci and Bulgarian lactic acid bacillus.”
“Gooseberries are native to Western Europe and northern Africa. As a wild plant, it is widespread in the Caucasus, Ukraine, Transcaucasia and Central Asia, Central and Southern Europe, North Africa and North America.”
- Usage terminological vocabulary. An encyclopedic article always contains basic terms from the field of knowledge related to the subject being described. For example, in an article devoted to describing a cat, the terms are used mammal, cat family, order of carnivores, domestication, stereoscopic vision, incisor, canine, premolar, molar, castration, sterilization, etc. At the same time, in the genre of encyclopedic articles only the most common terms known to a wide range of educated people are found. Their number is much lower than in scientific texts addressed to specialists.
The encyclopedic article lacks emotional and evaluative coloring of vocabulary and syntax
We will not dwell on this point in detail, since we have already covered it when studying texts of official business style, which also do not use emotional and evaluative coloring.
The style of an encyclopedic article is characterized by brevity and simplicity of presentation.
Information in an encyclopedic article is presented in a concise form: as much content as possible in the most concise format. This feature leads to an abundance of abbreviations in the text, incompleteness of syntactic constructions (if two phrases in a row have one subject, then the second time it is omitted, the auxiliary verb in the predicate may be omitted). The use of terms also contributes to the reduction of linguistic means.
Sentences should be constructed simply; sentences based on similar models are used. Such proposals are perceived faster; the main goal of an encyclopedic article - obtaining information - is achieved faster when this condition is met.
The text of the encyclopedic article begins with a definition of the concept
Definition is a logical term that denotes an explanation of the content of a concept, giving a fixed meaning to the term that names the concept.
The definition must contain the name of the generic concept to which the object/phenomenon/person described in the article refers. So, for a pumpkin, tomato, cucumber, the generic concept is a vegetable, for a car, bus, airplane - a vehicle, for a cat, cow, sheep - an animal, a mammal, etc. Then the definition names the distinctive and most significant characteristics of the concept being described.
Eg, " Bus (short for omnibus car) is a trackless motor vehicle designed to carry 8 or more passengers and powered by energy stored or produced from fuel stored on board, or by any other form of autonomous propulsion.».
« Cow is a female domestic bull (lat. Bos taurus taurus), a domesticated subspecies of wild bull (Bos taurus), an artiodactyl ruminant animal of the bovid family (Bovidae).».
Further composition encyclopedia article is as follows
1-2 paragraphs that provide a brief general description of the concept.
The rest of the story can go
- From general to specific;
- from simple to complex;
- in order of importance, fame, credibility, size, location;
- in chronological order - for historical reference;
- in thematic order - this is convenient in hierarchical lists;
- in alphabetical order when other orders are not suitable.
At the end of the encyclopedic article there are always sources, on which the author relied when writing the text of the article.
Based on information from encyclopedias and the Internet, prepare a report on the works of M. Lomonosov as a linguist. What is the significance of its linguistic heritage in determining the status of the Russian language?
Answers:
The genius of M.V. Lomonosov also manifested itself in linguistics.
