Administration of the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th century. Composition of the Russian Empire Area of ​​the Russian Empire in the 19th century

Along with the collapse of the Russian Empire, the majority of the population chose to create independent national states. Many of them were never destined to remain sovereign, and they became part of the USSR. Others were incorporated into the Soviet state later. What was the Russian Empire like at the beginning? XXcentury?

By the end of the 19th century, the territory of the Russian Empire was 22.4 million km 2. According to the 1897 census, the population was 128.2 million people, including the population of European Russia - 93.4 million people; Kingdom of Poland - 9.5 million, - 2.6 million, Caucasus Territory - 9.3 million, Siberia - 5.8 million, Central Asia - 7.7 million people. Over 100 peoples lived; 57% of the population were non-Russian peoples. The territory of the Russian Empire in 1914 was divided into 81 provinces and 20 regions; there were 931 cities. Some provinces and regions were united into governorates-general (Warsaw, Irkutsk, Kiev, Moscow, Amur, Stepnoe, Turkestan and Finland).

By 1914, the length of the territory of the Russian Empire was 4383.2 versts (4675.9 km) from north to south and 10,060 versts (10,732.3 km) from east to west. The total length of the land and sea borders is 64,909.5 versts (69,245 km), of which the land borders accounted for 18,639.5 versts (19,941.5 km), and the sea borders accounted for about 46,270 versts (49,360 .4 km).

The entire population was considered subjects of the Russian Empire, the male population (from 20 years old) swore allegiance to the emperor. The subjects of the Russian Empire were divided into four estates (“states”): nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants. The local population of Kazakhstan, Siberia and a number of other regions were distinguished into an independent “state” (foreigners). The coat of arms of the Russian Empire was a double-headed eagle with royal regalia; the state flag is a cloth with white, blue and red horizontal stripes; The national anthem is “God Save the Tsar.” National language - Russian.

Administratively, the Russian Empire by 1914 was divided into 78 provinces, 21 regions and 2 independent districts. The provinces and regions were divided into 777 counties and districts and in Finland - into 51 parishes. Counties, districts and parishes, in turn, were divided into camps, departments and sections (2523 in total), as well as 274 landmanships in Finland.

Territories that were important in military-political terms (metropolitan and border) were united into viceroyalties and general governorships. Some cities were allocated into special administrative units - city governments.

Even before the transformation of the Grand Duchy of Moscow into the Russian Kingdom in 1547, at the beginning of the 16th century, Russian expansion began to expand beyond its ethnic territory and began to absorb the following territories (the table does not include lands lost before the beginning of the 19th century):

Territory	Date (year) of accession to the Russian Empire	Data
Western Armenia (Asia Minor)		The territory was ceded in 1917-1918
Eastern Galicia, Bukovina (Eastern Europe)		ceded in 1915, partially recaptured in 1916, lost in 1917
Uriankhai region (Southern Siberia)		Currently part of the Republic of Tuva
Franz Josef Land, Emperor Nicholas II Land, New Siberian Islands (Arctic)		The archipelagos of the Arctic Ocean are designated as Russian territory by a note from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Northern Iran (Middle East)		Lost as a result of revolutionary events and the Russian Civil War. Currently owned by the State of Iran
Concession in Tianjin		Lost in 1920. Currently a city directly under the People's Republic of China
Kwantung Peninsula (Far East)		Lost as a result of defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Currently Liaoning Province, China
Badakhshan (Central Asia)		Currently, Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Okrug of Tajikistan
Concession in Hankou (Wuhan, East Asia)		Currently Hubei Province, China
Transcaspian region (Central Asia)		Currently belongs to Turkmenistan
Adjarian and Kars-Childyr sanjaks (Transcaucasia)		In 1921 they were ceded to Turkey. Currently Adjara Autonomous Okrug of Georgia; silts of Kars and Ardahan in Turkey
Bayazit (Dogubayazit) sanjak (Transcaucasia)		In the same year, 1878, it was ceded to Turkey following the results of the Berlin Congress.
Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Adrianople Sanjak (Balkans)		Abolished following the results of the Berlin Congress in 1879. Currently Bulgaria, Marmara region of Turkey
Khanate of Kokand (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan
Khiva (Khorezm) Khanate (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan
including Åland Islands		Currently Finland, the Republic of Karelia, Murmansk, Leningrad regions
Tarnopol District of Austria (Eastern Europe)		Currently, Ternopil region of Ukraine
Bialystok District of Prussia (Eastern Europe)		Currently Podlaskie Voivodeship of Poland
Ganja (1804), Karabakh (1805), Sheki (1805), Shirvan (1805), Baku (1806), Kuba (1806), Derbent (1806), northern part of the Talysh (1809) Khanate (Transcaucasia)		Vassal khanates of Persia, capture and voluntary entry. Secured in 1813 by a treaty with Persia following the war. Limited autonomy until the 1840s. Currently Azerbaijan, Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
Imeretian kingdom (1810), Megrelian (1803) and Gurian (1804) principalities (Transcaucasia)		Kingdom and principalities of Western Georgia (independent from Turkey since 1774). Protectorates and voluntary entries. Secured in 1812 by a treaty with Turkey and in 1813 by a treaty with Persia. Self-government until the end of the 1860s. Currently Georgia, Samegrelo-Upper Svaneti, Guria, Imereti, Samtskhe-Javakheti
Minsk, Kiev, Bratslav, eastern parts of Vilna, Novogrudok, Berestey, Volyn and Podolsk voivodeships of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently, Vitebsk, Minsk, Gomel regions of Belarus; Rivne, Khmelnitsky, Zhytomyr, Vinnitsa, Kiev, Cherkassy, ​​Kirovograd regions of Ukraine
Crimea, Edisan, Dzhambayluk, Yedishkul, Little Nogai Horde (Kuban, Taman) (Northern Black Sea region)		Khanate (independent from Turkey since 1772) and nomadic Nogai tribal unions. Annexation, secured in 1792 by treaty as a result of the war. Currently Rostov region, Krasnodar region, Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol; Zaporozhye, Kherson, Nikolaev, Odessa regions of Ukraine
Kuril Islands (Far East)		Tribal unions of the Ainu, bringing into Russian citizenship, finally by 1782. According to the treaty of 1855, the Southern Kuril Islands are in Japan, according to the treaty of 1875 - all the islands. Currently, the North Kuril, Kuril and South Kuril urban districts of the Sakhalin region
Chukotka (Far East)		Currently Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
Tarkov Shamkhaldom (North Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of Dagestan
Ossetia (Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, the Republic of South Ossetia
Big and Small Kabarda		Principalities. In 1552-1570, a military alliance with the Russian state, later vassals of Turkey. In 1739-1774, according to the agreement, it became a buffer principality. Since 1774 in Russian citizenship. Currently Stavropol Territory, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Chechen Republic
Inflyantskoe, Mstislavskoe, large parts of Polotsk, Vitebsk voivodeships of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently, Vitebsk, Mogilev, Gomel regions of Belarus, Daugavpils region of Latvia, Pskov, Smolensk regions of Russia
Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn (Northern Black Sea region)		Fortresses, from the Crimean Khanate by agreement. Recognized by Turkey in 1774 by treaty as a result of war. The Crimean Khanate gained independence from the Ottoman Empire under the patronage of Russia. Currently, the urban district of Kerch of the Republic of Crimea of ​​Russia, Ochakovsky district of the Nikolaev region of Ukraine
Ingushetia (North Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of Ingushetia
Altai (Southern Siberia)		Currently, the Altai Territory, the Altai Republic, the Novosibirsk, Kemerovo, and Tomsk regions of Russia, the East Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
Kymenygard and Neyshlot fiefs - Neyshlot, Vilmanstrand and Friedrichsgam (Baltics)		Flax, from Sweden by treaty as a result of the war. Since 1809 in the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland. Currently Leningrad region of Russia, Finland (region of South Karelia)
Junior Zhuz (Central Asia)		Currently, the West Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
(Kyrgyz land, etc.) (Southern Siberia)		Currently the Republic of Khakassia
Novaya Zemlya, Taimyr, Kamchatka, Commander Islands (Arctic, Far East)		Currently Arkhangelsk region, Kamchatka, Krasnoyarsk territories

Domestic policy in the first half of the 19th century

Upon ascending the throne, Alexander solemnly proclaimed that from now on the basis of politics would not be the personal will or whim of the monarch, but strict observance of the laws. The population was promised legal guarantees against arbitrariness. A circle of friends formed around the king, called the Secret Committee. It included young aristocrats: Count P. A. Stroganov, Count V. P. Kochubey, N. N. Novosiltsev, Prince A. D. Czartorysky. The aggressively minded aristocracy dubbed the committee a “Jacobin gang.” This committee met from 1801 to 1803 and discussed projects for government reforms, the abolition of serfdom, etc.

During the first period of the reign of Alexander I from 1801 to 1815. much has been done, but much more has been promised. The restrictions introduced by Paul I were abolished. Kazan, Kharkov, and St. Petersburg universities were created. Universities were opened in Dorpat and Vilna. In 1804, the Moscow Commercial School was opened. From now on, representatives of all classes could be admitted to educational institutions; at the lower levels, education was free and paid for from the state budget. The reign of Alexander I was characterized by unconditional religious tolerance, which was extremely important for multinational Russia.

In 1802, the obsolete collegiums, which had been the main bodies of executive power since Peter the Great's time, were replaced by ministries. The first 8 ministries were established: military ground forces, naval forces, justice, internal affairs, finance. Commerce and public education.

In 1810-1811 with the reorganization of ministries, their number increased, and their functions were even more clearly delineated. In 1802, the Senate was reformed, becoming the highest judicial and supervisory body in the public administration system. He received the right to make “representations” to the emperor regarding outdated laws. Spiritual affairs were in charge of the Holy Synod, whose members were appointed by the emperor. It was headed by the chief prosecutor, a man usually close to the tsar. From military or civil officials. Under Alexander I, the position of chief prosecutor in 1803-1824. Prince A. N. Golitsyn, who was also the Minister of Public Education from 1816. The most active supporter of the idea of ​​reforming the public administration system was State Secretary of the Permanent Council M. M. Speransky. However, he did not enjoy the emperor's favor for a very long time. The implementation of Speransky's project could contribute to the beginning of the constitutional process in Russia. In total, the draft “Introduction to the Code of State Laws” outlined the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers by convening representatives of the State Duma and introducing elected courts.

At the same time, he considered it necessary to create a State Council, which would become a link between the emperor and the central and local governments. The cautious Speransky endowed all newly proposed bodies with only advisory rights and did not at all encroach on the fullness of autocratic power. Speransky’s liberal project was opposed by the conservative-minded part of the nobility, who saw in it a danger to the autocratic serfdom system and to their privileged position.

The famous writer and historian I.M. Karamzin became the ideologist of the conservatives. In practical terms, a reactionary policy was pursued by Count A. A. Arakcheev, close to Alexander I, who, unlike M. M. Speransky, sought to strengthen the personal power of the emperor through the further development of the bureaucratic system.

The struggle between liberals and conservatives ended in victory for the latter. Speransky was removed from business and sent into exile. The only result was the establishment of the State Council, in 1810, which consisted of ministers and other high dignitaries appointed by the emperor. He was given advisory functions in the development of the most important laws. Reforms 1802–1811 did not change the autocratic essence of the Russian political system. They only increased the centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. As before, the emperor was the supreme legislative and executive power.

In subsequent years, the reformist sentiments of Alexander I were reflected in the introduction of a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland (1815), the preservation of the Sejm and the constitutional structure of Finland, annexed to Russia in 1809, as well as in the creation by N. N. Novosiltsev, on behalf of the tsar, of the “Charter of Constitution” Russian Empire" (1819 –1820). The project provided for the separation of branches of government and the introduction of government bodies. Equality of all citizens before the law and the federal principle of government. However, all these proposals remained on paper.

In the last decade of the reign of Alexander I, a conservative trend was increasingly felt in domestic politics. After the name of its guide, it was called “Arakcheevshchina”. This policy was expressed in the further centralization of public administration, in police and repressive measures aimed at destroying free thought, in the “cleansing” of universities, and in the imposition of cane discipline in the army. The most striking manifestation of the policy of Count A. A. Arakcheev was military settlements - a special form of recruiting and maintaining the army.

The purpose of creating military settlements is to achieve self-sufficiency and self-reproduction of the army. To ease the burden of maintaining a huge army in peaceful conditions for the country’s budget. The first attempts to organize them dated back to 1808-1809, but they began to be created en masse in 1815-1816. State-owned peasants of the St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev and Kharkov provinces were transferred to the category of military settlements. Soldiers were settled here, and their families were also discharged to them. Wives became villagers, sons from the age of 7 were enrolled as cantonists, and from the age of 18 they entered active military service. The whole life of a peasant family was strictly regulated. The slightest violation of order resulted in corporal punishment. A. A. Arakcheev was appointed chief commander of the military settlements. By 1825, about a third of the soldiers had been transferred to settlement.

However, the idea of ​​self-sufficiency for the army failed. The government spent huge amounts of money on organizing settlements. The military villagers did not become a special class that expanded the social support of the autocracy; on the contrary, they were worried and rebelled. The government abandoned this practice in subsequent years. Alexander I died in Taganrog in 1825. He had no children. Due to the uncertainty in the issue of succession to the throne, an emergency situation was created in Russia - an interregnum.

The years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas I (1825-1855) are rightly regarded as the “apogee of autocracy.” Nicholas's reign began with the massacre of the Decembrists and ended in the days of the defense of Sevastopol. The replacement of the heir to the throne by Alexander I came as a surprise to Nicholas I, who was not prepared to rule Russia.

On December 6, 1826, the Emperor created the first Secret Committee, headed by the Chairman of the State Council V.P. Kochubey. Initially, the committee developed projects for the transformation of higher and local government and the law “on estates,” i.e., on the rights of estates. The peasant question was also supposed to be considered. However, in reality, the work of the committee did not produce any practical results, and in 1832 the committee ceased its activities.

Nicholas I set the task of concentrating in his hands the decision of both general and private affairs, bypassing the relevant ministries and departments. The principle of the regime of personal power was embodied in His Imperial Majesty's Own Office. It was divided into several branches that interfered in the political, social and spiritual life of the country.

The codification of Russian legislation was entrusted to M. M. Speransky, who had returned from exile, who intended to collect and classify all existing laws and create a fundamentally new system of legislation. However, conservative tendencies in domestic policy limited him to a more modest task. Under his leadership, the laws adopted after the Council Code of 1649 were summarized. They were published in the “Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire” in 45 volumes. The current laws that corresponded to the legal situation in the country were placed in a separate “Code of Laws” (15 volumes). All this was also aimed at increasing the bureaucratization of management.

In 1837-1841. under the leadership of Count P. D. Kiselev, a wide system of measures was carried out - a reform of the management of state peasants. In 1826, a committee for the organization of educational institutions was created. Its tasks included: checking the charters of educational institutions, developing uniform principles of education, defining educational disciplines and manuals. The committee developed the basic principles of government policy in the field of education. Legally, they were enshrined in the Charter of lower and secondary educational institutions in 1828. Class, isolation, isolation of each level, restrictions in obtaining education by representatives of the lower classes, created the essence of the created education system.

The reaction also hit universities. Their network, however, was expanded due to the need for qualified officials. The Charter of 1835 eliminated university autonomy and tightened control over the trustees of educational districts, the police and local government. The Minister of Public Education at this time was S.S. Uvarov, who in his policy sought to combine the “protection” of Nicholas I with the development of education and culture.

In 1826, a new censorship charter was issued, which was called “cast iron” by contemporaries. The Main Directorate of Censorship was subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. The fight against advanced journalism was considered by Nicholas I as one of the primary political tasks. One after another, bans on the publication of magazines rained down. The year 1831 was the date when the publication of A. A. Delvich’s “Literary Gazette” ceased, in 1832 “European” by P. V. Kirievsky was closed, in 1834 “Moscow Telegraph” by N. A. Polevoy, and in 1836 “ Telescope" N.I. Nadezhdin.

In the domestic policy of the last years of the reign of Nicholas I (1848-1855), the reactionary-repressive line intensified even more.

By the mid-50s. Russia turned out to be an “ear of clay with feet of clay.” This predetermined failures in foreign policy, defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) and caused reforms in the 60s.

Russian foreign policy in the first half of the 19th century.

At the turn of the XVIII – XIX centuries. Two directions in Russian foreign policy were clearly defined: the Middle East - the struggle to strengthen its positions in the Transcaucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans and the European - Russia's participation in coalition wars against Napoleonic France. One of the first acts of Alexander I after ascending the throne was to restore relations with England. But Alexander I did not want to enter into conflict with France. The normalization of relations with England and France allowed Russia to intensify its activities in the Middle East, mainly in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

According to the manifesto of Alexander I of September 12, 1801, the Georgian ruling Bagratid dynasty lost its throne, and control of Kartli and Kakheti passed to the Russian governor. Tsarist administration was introduced in Eastern Georgia. In 1803-1804 under the same conditions, the remaining parts of Georgia - Mengrelia, Guria, Imereti - became part of Russia. Russia received strategically important territory to strengthen its positions in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The completion in 1814 of the Georgian Military Road, which connected Transcaucasia with European Russia, was of great importance not only strategically, but also economically.

The annexation of Georgia pitted Russia against Iran and the Ottoman Empire. The hostile attitude of these countries towards Russia was fueled by the intrigues of England. The war with Iran, which began in 1804, was waged by Russia successfully: already during 1804-1806. the main part of Azerbaijan was annexed to Russia. The war ended with the annexation of the Talysh Khanate and the Mugan steppe in 1813. According to the Treaty of Gulistan, signed on October 24, 1813, Iran recognized the assignment of these territories to Russia. Russia was given the right to keep its military vessels in the Caspian Sea.

In 1806, a war between Russia and Turkey began, which relied on the help of France, which supplied it with weapons. The reason for the war was the removal in August 1806 of the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia from their posts at the insistence of Napoleonic General Sebastiani, who arrived in Turkey. In October 1806, Russian troops under the command of General I. I. Mikhelson occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1807, D. N. Senyavin’s squadron defeated the Ottoman fleet, but then the diversion of the main Russian forces to participate in the anti-Napoleonic coalition did not allow the Russian troops to develop their success. Only when M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander of the Russian army in 1811, military actions took a completely different turn. Kutuzov concentrated his main forces at the Rushchuk fortress, where on June 22, 1811 he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ottoman Empire. Then, with successive blows, Kutuzov defeated piecemeal the main forces of the Ottomans along the left bank of the Danube, their remnants laid down their arms and surrendered. On May 28, 1812, Kutuzov signed a peace treaty in Bucharest, according to which Moldova ceded to Russia, which subsequently received the status of the Bessarabia region. Serbia, which rose up to fight for independence in 1804 and was supported by Russia, was granted autonomy.

In 1812, the eastern part of Moldavia became part of Russia. Its western part (beyond the Prut River) under the name of the Principality of Moldavia remained a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire.

In 1803-1805. The international situation in Europe has sharply deteriorated. The period of Napoleonic wars begins, in which all European countries were involved, incl. and Russia.

At the beginning of the 19th century. Almost all of central and southern Europe was under Napoleon's rule. In foreign policy, Napoleon expressed the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which competed with the English bourgeoisie in the struggle for world markets and for the colonial division of the world. Anglo-French rivalry acquired a pan-European character and took a leading place in international relations at the beginning of the 19th century.

The proclamation of Napoleon as emperor in 1804 on May 18 further inflamed the situation. On April 11, 1805 it was concluded. Anglo-Russian military convention, according to which Russia pledged to field 180 thousand soldiers, and England to pay a subsidy to Russia in the amount of 2.25 million pounds sterling and to participate in land and sea military operations against Napoleon. Austria, Sweden and the Kingdom of Naples joined this convention. However, only Russian and Austrian troops numbering 430 thousand soldiers were sent against Napoleon. Having learned about the movement of these troops, Napoleon withdrew his army in the Boulogne camp and quickly moved it to Bavaria, where the Austrian army was located under the command of General Mack and completely defeated it at Ulm.

The commander of the Russian army, M.I. Kutuzov, taking into account Napoleon’s four-fold superiority in strength, through a series of skillful maneuvers, avoided a major battle and, having completed a difficult 400-kilometer march-maneuver, united with another Russian army and Austrian reserves. Kutuzov proposed to withdraw the Russian-Austrian troops further to the east in order to gather enough strength to successfully conduct military operations, but Emperors Franz and Alexander I, who were with the army, insisted on a general battle. On November 20, 1805, it took place at Austerlitz (Czech Republic) and ended in victory Napoleon. Austria capitulated and made a humiliating peace. The coalition actually collapsed. Russian troops were withdrawn to Russia and Russian-French peace negotiations began in Paris. On July 8, 1806, a peace treaty was concluded in Paris, but Alexander I refused to ratify it.

In mid-September 1806, the fourth coalition was created against France (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia and Sweden). In the battle of Jena and Auerstedt, the Prussian troops were completely defeated. Almost all of Prussia was occupied by French troops. The Russian army had to fight alone for 7 months against the superior forces of the French. The most significant battles were between Russian troops and the French in East Prussia on January 26-27 at Preussisch-Eylau and June 2, 1807 near Friedland. During these battles, Napoleon managed to push the Russian troops back to the Neman, but he did not dare to enter Russia and proposed to make peace. The meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I took place in Tilsit (on the Neman) at the end of June 1807. The peace treaty was concluded on June 25, 1807.

Joining the continental blockade caused severe damage to the Russian economy, since England was its main trading partner. The conditions of the Peace of Tilsit caused strong discontent both in conservative circles and in the advanced circles of Russian society. A serious blow was dealt to Russia's international prestige. The painful impression of the Tilsit Peace was to some extent “compensated” by successes in the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809, which was a consequence of the Tilsit agreements.

The war began on February 8, 1808 and required great effort from Russia. At first, military operations were successful: in February-March 1808, the main urban centers and fortresses of Southern Finland were occupied. Then hostilities stopped. By the end of 1808, Finland was liberated from Swedish troops, and in March the 48,000-strong corps of M. B. Barclay de Tolly, having crossed the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia, approached Stockholm. On September 5, 1809, in the city of Friedrichsham, peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden, under the terms of which Finland and the Aland Islands passed to Russia. At the same time, the contradictions between France and Russia gradually deepened.

A new war between Russia and France was becoming inevitable. The main motivation for starting the war was Napoleon's desire for world domination, on the way to which Russia stood.

On the night of June 12, 1812, Napoleonic army crossed the Neman and invaded Russia. The left flank of the French army consisted of 3 corps under the command of MacDonald, advancing on Riga and St. Petersburg. The main, central group of troops consisting of 220 thousand people, led by Napoleon, led an attack on Kovno and Vilno. Alexander I was in Vilna at that time. Upon news of France crossing the Russian border, he sent General A.D. Balashov to Napoleon with peace proposals, but was refused.

Usually Napoleon's wars came down to one or two general battles, which decided the fate of the company. And for this, Napoleon’s calculation boiled down to using his numerical superiority to defeat the dispersed Russian armies one by one. On June 13, French troops occupied Kovno, and on June 16, Vilno. Napoleon's attempt at the end of June to encircle and destroy Barclay de Tolly's army in the Drissa camp (on the Western Dvina) failed. Barclay de Tolly, with a successful maneuver, led his army out of the trap that the Drissa camp could have turned out to be and headed through Polotsk to Vitebsk to join the army of Bagration, who was retreating south in the direction of Bobruisk, Novy Bykhov and Smolensk. The difficulties of the Russian army were further aggravated by the lack of a unified command. On June 22, after heavy rearguard battles, the armies of Barclay and Tolly and Bagration united in Smolensk.

The stubborn battle of the Russian rearguard with the advancing advanced units of the French army on August 2 near Krasny (west of Smolensk) allowed Russian troops to strengthen Smolensk. On August 4-6, a bloody battle for Smolensk took place. On the night of August 6, the burned and destroyed city was abandoned by Russian troops. In Smolensk, Napoleon decided to attack Moscow. On August 8, Alexander I signed a decree appointing M. I. Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Nine days later, Kutuzov arrived in the active army.

For the general battle, Kutuzov chose a position near the village of Borodino. On August 24, the French army approached the forward fortification in front of the Borodino field - the Shevardinsky redoubt. A heavy battle ensued: 12 thousand Russian soldiers held back the onslaught of a 40 thousand French detachment all day. This battle helped strengthen the left flank of the Borodino position. The Battle of Borodino began at 5 a.m. on August 26 with an attack by the French division of General Delzon on Borodino. Only at 16:00 was the Raevsky redoubt captured by the French cavalry. By evening, Kutuzov gave the order to retreat to a new line of defense. Napoleon stopped attacks, limiting himself to artillery cannonade. As a result of the Battle of Borodino, both armies suffered heavy losses. The Russians lost 44 thousand, and the French 58 thousand people.

On September 1 (13), a military council was assembled in the village of Fili, at which Kutuzov made the only correct decision - to leave Moscow in order to preserve the army. The next day the French army approached Moscow. Moscow was empty: no more than 10 thousand inhabitants remained in it. That same night, fires broke out in different parts of the city and raged for a whole week. The Russian army, having left Moscow, first moved towards Ryazan. Near Kolomna, Kutuzov, leaving a barrier of several Cossack regiments, turned onto the Starokaluga road and led his army out from under the attack of the advancing French cavalry. The Russian army entered Tarutino. On October 6, Kutuzov suddenly struck at Murat’s corps, which was stationed on the river. Chernishna is not far from Tarutina. Murat's defeat forced Napoleon to accelerate the movement of the main forces of his army towards Kaluga. Kutuzov sent his troops to cross him to Maloyaroslavets. On October 12, the battle of Maloyaroslavets took place, forcing Napoleon to abandon his movement to the south and turn to Vyazma on the old Smolensk road, devastated by the war. The retreat of the French army began, which later turned into flight, and its parallel pursuit by the Russian army.

Since Napoleon's invasion of Russia, a people's war against foreign invaders broke out in the country. After leaving Moscow and especially during the Tarutino camp, the partisan movement took on a wide scope. The partisan detachments, having launched a “small war,” disrupted the enemy’s communications, served as reconnaissance, sometimes fought real battles and actually blocked the retreating French army.

Retreating from Smolensk to the river. Berezina, the French army still retained its combat capability, although it suffered heavy losses from hunger and disease. After crossing the river. Berezina already began the chaotic flight of the remnants of the French troops. On December 5, in Smorgani, Napoleon handed over command to Marshal Murat, and he himself hurried to Paris. On December 25, 1812, a royal manifesto was issued, announcing the end of the Patriotic War. Russia was the only country in Europe capable of not only resisting Napoleonic aggression, but also inflicting a crushing defeat on it. But this victory came at a high cost to the people. 12 provinces that became the scene of hostilities were devastated. Such ancient cities as Moscow, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk and others were burned and devastated.

To ensure its security, Russia continued military operations and led the movement for the liberation of European peoples from French domination.

In September 1814, the Congress of Vienna opened, at which the victorious powers decided on the issue of the post-war structure of Europe. It was difficult for the allies to agree among themselves, because Sharp contradictions arose, mainly over territorial issues. The work of the congress was interrupted due to Napoleon's flight from Fr. Elbe and the restoration of his power in France for 100 days. Through united efforts, European states inflicted a final defeat on him at the Battle of Waterloo in the summer of 1815. Napoleon was captured and exiled to Fr. St. Helena off the west coast of Africa.

The resolutions of the Congress of Vienna led to the return of old dynasties in France, Italy, Spain and other countries. The Kingdom of Poland was created from most of the Polish lands as part of the Russian Empire. In September 1815, Russian Emperor Alexander I, Austrian Emperor Franz and Prussian King Frederick William III signed the act of creating the Holy Alliance. Its author was Alexander I himself. The text of the Union contained obligations of Christian monarchs to provide each other with all possible assistance. Political goals are support for the old monarchical dynasties based on the principle of legitimism (recognition of the legitimacy of maintaining their power), the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe.

At the congresses of the Union that took place from 1818 to 1822. the suppression of revolutions was authorized in Naples (1820-1821), Piedmont (1821), and Spain (1820–1823). However, these actions were aimed at maintaining peace and stability in Europe.

News of the uprising in St. Petersburg in December 1825 was perceived by the Shah's government as an opportune moment to unleash military action against Russia. On July 16, 1826, a 60,000-strong Iranian army invaded Transcaucasia without declaring war and began rapidly moving towards Tbilisi. But she was soon stopped and began to suffer defeat after defeat. At the end of August 1826, Russian troops under the command of A.P. Ermolov completely cleared Transcaucasia of Iranian troops and military operations were transferred to Iranian territory.

Nicholas I, not trusting Ermolov (he suspected him of having connections with the Decembrists), transferred command of the troops of the Caucasus District to I.F. Paskevich. In April 1827, the offensive of Russian troops in Eastern Armenia began. The local Armenian population rose to the aid of the Russian troops. At the beginning of July, Nakhichevan fell, and in October 1827, Erivan - the largest fortresses in the center of the Nakhichevan and Erivan khanates. Soon all of Eastern Armenia was liberated by Russian troops. At the end of October 1827, Russian troops occupied Tabriz, the second capital of Iran, and quickly advanced towards Tehran. Panic began among the Iranian troops. Under these conditions, the Shah's government was forced to accept the peace terms proposed by Russia. On February 10, 1828, the Turkmanchay Peace Treaty between Russia and Iran was signed. According to the Treaty of Turkmanchay, the Nakhichevan and Erivan khanates joined Russia.

In 1828, the Russian-Turkish war began, which was extremely difficult for Russia. The troops, accustomed to the parade art, technically poorly equipped and led by incompetent generals, were initially unable to achieve any significant success. The soldiers were starving, diseases were rampant among them, from which more people died than from enemy bullets. In the company of 1828, at the cost of significant efforts and losses, they managed to occupy Wallachia and Moldavia, cross the Danube and take the fortress of Varna.

The company of 1829 was more successful. The Russian army crossed the Balkans and at the end of June, after a long siege, captured the strong fortress of Silistria, then Shumla, and in July Burgas and Sozopol. In Transcaucasia, Russian troops besieged the fortresses of Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet and Erzurum. On August 8, Adrianople fell. Nicholas I hurried the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Dibich, to conclude peace. On September 2, 1829, a peace treaty was concluded in Adrianople. Russia received the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from Anapa to the approaches to Batum. After the annexation of Transcaucasia, the Russian government was faced with the task of ensuring a stable situation in the North Caucasus. Under Alexander I, the general began advancing deeper into Chechnya and Dagestan, building military strongholds. The local population was herded to build fortresses, fortified points, and build roads and bridges. The result of the policy was uprisings in Kabarda and Adygea (1821-1826) and Chechnya (1825-1826), which, however, were subsequently suppressed by Ermolov’s corps.

Muridism, which became widespread among the Muslim population of the North Caucasus in the late 20s, played a major role in the movement of the Caucasian mountaineers. XIX century It implied religious fanaticism and an irreconcilable struggle against the “infidels,” which gave it a nationalistic character. In the North Caucasus it was directed exclusively against Russians and became most widespread in Dagestan. A unique state has emerged here - Immat. In 1834, Shamil became imam (head of state). Under his leadership, the struggle against the Russians intensified in the North Caucasus. It lasted for 30 years. Shamil managed to unite the broad masses of the highlanders and carry out a number of successful operations against Russian troops. In 1848, his power was declared hereditary. This was the time of Shamil's greatest successes. But in the late 40s - early 50s, the urban population, dissatisfied with the feudal-theocratic order in Shamil's imamate, began to gradually move away from the movement, and Shamil began to suffer setbacks. The mountaineers left Shamil in entire villages and stopped the armed struggle against the Russian troops.

Even Russia’s failures in the Crimean War did not ease the situation for Shamil, who tried to actively assist the Turkish army. His raids on Tbilisi failed. The peoples of Kabarda and Ossetia also did not want to join Shamil and oppose Russia. In 1856-1857 Chechnya fell away from Shamil. Uprisings against Shamil began in Avaria and Northern Dagestan. Under pressure from troops, Shamil retreated to Southern Dagestan. On April 1, 1859, the troops of General Evdokimov took Shamil’s “capital” - the village of Vedeno and destroyed it. Shamil with 400 murids took refuge in the village of Gunib, where on August 26, 1859, after long and stubborn resistance, he surrendered. The Imamat ceased to exist. In 1863-1864 Russian troops occupied the entire territory along the northern slope of the Caucasus Range and suppressed the resistance of the Circassians. The Caucasian War is over.

For European absolutist states, the problem of combating the revolutionary danger was dominant in their foreign policy; it was connected with the main task of their domestic policy - the preservation of feudal serfdom.

In 1830-1831 A revolutionary crisis arose in Europe. On July 28, 1830, a revolution broke out in France, overthrowing the Bourbon dynasty. Having learned about it, Nicholas I began to prepare the intervention of European monarchs. However, the delegations sent by Nicholas I to Austria and Germany returned with nothing. The monarchs did not dare to accept the proposals, believing that this intervention could result in serious social upheavals in their countries. European monarchs recognized the new French king, Louis Philippe d'Orléans, as did Nicholas I later. In August 1830, a revolution broke out in Belgium, which declared itself an independent kingdom (previously Belgium was part of the Netherlands).

Under the influence of these revolutions, an uprising broke out in Poland in November 1830, caused by the desire to return the independence of the borders of 1792. Prince Constantine managed to escape. A provisional government of 7 people was formed. The Polish Sejm, which met on January 13, 1831, proclaimed the “detronization” (deprivation of the Polish throne) of Nicholas I and the independence of Poland. A 120 thousand army was sent against the 50 thousand rebel army under the command of I. I. Dibich, who on February 13 inflicted a major defeat on the Poles near Grokhov. On August 27, after a powerful artillery cannonade, the assault on the Warsaw suburb of Prague began. The next day Warsaw fell and the uprising was crushed. The Constitution of 1815 was annulled. According to the Limited Statute published on February 14, 1832, the Kingdom of Poland was declared an integral part of the Russian Empire. The administration of Poland was entrusted to the Administrative Council, headed by the governor of the emperor in Poland, I. F. Paskevich.

In the spring of 1848, a wave of bourgeois-democratic revolutions swept Germany, Austria, Italy, Wallachia and Moldova. Early in 1849, revolution broke out in Hungary. Nicholas I took advantage of the Austrian Habsburgs' request for help in suppressing the Hungarian revolution. At the beginning of May 1849, the 150 thousand army of I. F. Paskevich was sent to Hungary. A significant superiority of forces allowed Russian and Austrian troops to suppress the Hungarian revolution.

The issue of the regime of the Black Sea straits was especially acute for Russia. In the 30-40s. XIX century Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty was concluded between Turkey and Russia for a period of 8 years. Under this agreement, Russia received the right to freely conduct its warships through the straits. In the 40s the situation changed. Based on a series of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all navies. This had a hard impact on the Russian fleet. He found himself locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military power, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits and strengthen its position in the Middle East and the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.

England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive it of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula. In turn, Nicholas I sought to use the conflict for a decisive attack on the Ottoman Empire, believing that he would have to wage war with one weakened empire, and hoped to negotiate with England on the division of, in his words: “the inheritance of a sick man.” He counted on the isolation of France, as well as on the support of Austria for the “service” rendered to it in suppressing the revolution in Hungary. His calculations turned out to be wrong. England did not agree to his proposal to divide the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I also believed that France did not have sufficient military forces to pursue an aggressive policy in Europe.

In 1850, a pan-European conflict began in the Middle East, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic churches about which of the churches had the right to own the keys to the Bethlehem Temple and other religious monuments in Jerusalem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent between Russia and Nicholas I. A special representative of the Tsar, Prince A. S. Menshikov, was sent to Constantinople. He was entrusted with obtaining privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage for Orthodox citizens of Turkey. However, his ultimatum was rejected.

Thus, the dispute over the Holy Places served as a pretext for the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the pan-European war. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops occupied the Danube principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan in October 1853, supported by England and France, declared war on Russia. Nicholas I published the Manifesto on the war with the Ottoman Empire. Military operations were launched on the Danube and in Transcaucasia. On November 18, 1853, Admiral P. S. Nakhimov, at the head of a squadron of six battleships and two frigates, defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and destroyed coastal fortifications. The brilliant victory of the Russian fleet at Sinop was the reason for the direct intervention of England and France in the military conflict between Russia and Turkey, which was on the verge of defeat. In January 1854, a 70,000-strong Anglo-French army was concentrated in Varna. At the beginning of March 1854, England and France presented Russia with an ultimatum to cleanse the Danube principalities, and, having received no response, declared war on Russia. Austria, for its part, signed with the Ottoman Empire the occupation of the Danube principalities and moved a 300,000-strong army to their borders, threatening Russia with war. Austria's demand was supported by Prussia. At first, Nicholas I refused, but the commander-in-chief of the Danube Front, I.F. Paskevich, convinced him to withdraw troops from the Danube principalities, which were soon occupied by Austrian troops.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was to capture Crimea and Sevastopol, a Russian naval base. On September 2, 1854, the allied forces began landing on the Crimean peninsula near Yevpatoria, consisting of 360 ships and a 62,000-strong army. Admiral P.S. Nakhimov ordered the sinking of the entire sailing fleet in the Sevastopol Bay in order to interfere with the Allied ships. 52 thousand Russian troops, of which 33 thousand with 96 guns from Prince A.S. Menshikov, were located throughout the Crimean Peninsula. Under his leadership, the battle on the river. Alma in September 1854, Russian troops lost. By order of Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisarai. On September 13, 1854, the siege of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months.

The defense was headed by the chief of staff of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov, and after his death, at the very beginning of the siege, by P.S. Nakhimov, who was mortally wounded on June 28, 1855. The bulk of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle under Inkerman (November 1854), attack on Yevpatoria (February 1855), battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the residents of Sevastopol. In August 1855, the final assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, it was hopeless to continue the defense. In the Caucasian theater, military operations developed more successfully for Russia. After Turkey's defeat in Transcaucasia, Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress of Kars fell. The conduct of hostilities was stopped. Negotiations began.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris peace treaty was signed, according to which the Black Sea was declared neutral. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from Russia, however, it lost the right to protect the Danube principalities in Serbia. With the “neutralization” of France, Russia was prohibited from having naval forces, arsenals and fortresses in the Black Sea. This dealt a blow to the security of the southern borders. The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the balance of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The defeat brought a sad conclusion to Nicholas' rule, stirred up the public masses and forced the government to work closely on reforming the state.



To the question Help! Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century. given by the author Separate the best answer is 1. Social movements in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The first years of the reign of Alexander I were marked by a noticeable revival of public life. Current issues of the state's domestic and foreign policy were discussed in scientific and literary societies, in circles of students and teachers, in secular salons and in Masonic lodges. The focus of public attention was on the attitude towards the French Revolution, serfdom and autocracy.
The lifting of the ban on the activities of private printing houses, permission to import books from abroad, the adoption of a new censorship statute (1804) - all this had a significant impact on the further spread of the ideas of the European Enlightenment in Russia. Educational goals were set by I.P. Pnin, V.V. Popugaev, A.Kh. Vostokov, A.P. Kunitsyn, who created the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts in St. Petersburg (1801-1825). Strongly influenced by Radishchev's views, they translated the works of Voltaire, Diderot, and Montesquieu, and published articles and literary works.
Supporters of various ideological trends began to group around new magazines. “Bulletin of Europe”, published by N. M. Karamzin and then by V. A. Zhukovsky, was popular.
Most Russian educators considered it necessary to reform autocratic rule and abolish serfdom. However, they constituted only a small part of society and, moreover, remembering the horrors of the Jacobin terror, they hoped to achieve their goal peacefully, through education, moral education and the formation of civic consciousness.
The bulk of the nobility and officials were conservative. The views of the majority were reflected in N. M. Karamzin’s “Note on Ancient and New Russia” (1811). Recognizing the need for change, Karamzin opposed the plan for constitutional reforms, since Russia, where “the sovereign is the living law,” does not need a constitution, but fifty “smart and virtuous governors.”
The Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army played a huge role in the development of national identity. The country was experiencing a huge patriotic upsurge, hopes for sweeping changes revived among the people and society, everyone was waiting for changes for the better - and they did not receive it. The peasants were the first to be disappointed. Heroic participants in battles, saviors of the Fatherland, they hoped to gain freedom, but from the manifesto on the occasion of the victory over Napoleon (1814) they heard:
“Peasants, our faithful people, may they receive their reward from God.” A wave of peasant uprisings swept across the country, the number of which increased in the post-war period. In total, according to incomplete data, about 280 peasant unrest occurred over a quarter of a century, and approximately 2/3 of them occurred in 1813-1820. The movement on the Don (1818-1820) was especially long and fierce, in which more than 45 thousand peasants were involved. Constant unrest accompanied the introduction of military settlements. One of the largest was the uprising in Chuguev in the summer of 1819.
2. Russian foreign policy in 1801 - early 1812
After ascending the throne, Alexander I began to adhere to the tactic of refusing political and trade agreements concluded by his father. The foreign policy position he developed together with his “young friends” can be characterized as a “free hands” policy. Russia tried, while maintaining its position as a great power, to act as an arbiter in the Anglo-French conflict and, by achieving concessions related to the navigation of Russian ships in the Eastern Mediterranean, to reduce military tension on the continent.

Answer from Gray Daze[master]
1) The theory of official nationality - state ideology during the reign of Nicholas I, the author of which was S. S. Uvarov. It was based on conservative views on education, science, and literature. The basic principles were set out by Count Sergei Uvarov upon assuming the post of Minister of Public Education in his report to Nicholas I “On some general principles that can serve as a guide in the management of the Ministry of Public Education”
Later, this ideology began to be briefly called “Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality.”
According to this theory, the Russian people are deeply religious and devoted to the throne, and the Orthodox faith and autocracy constitute the indispensable conditions for the existence of Russia. Nationality was understood as the need to adhere to one’s own traditions and reject foreign influence. The term was a kind of attempt to ideologically substantiate the government course of Nicholas I in the early 1830s. Within the framework of this theory, the head of the III department, Benkendorf, wrote that Russia’s past is amazing, the present is beautiful, and the future is beyond all imagination.
Westernism is a direction of Russian social and philosophical thought that developed in the 1830s - 1850s, whose representatives, unlike the Slavophiles and Pochvenniks, denied the idea of ​​the originality and uniqueness of the historical destinies of Russia. The peculiarities of the cultural, everyday and socio-political structure of Russia were considered by Westerners mainly as a consequence of delays and lags in development. Westerners believed that there was only one path for human development, in which Russia was forced to catch up with the developed countries of Western Europe.
Westerners
In a less strict understanding, Westerners include everyone oriented toward Western European cultural and ideological values.
The most notable representatives of the Westernizing trend in Russian literature and philosophical thought are considered to be P. Ya. Chaadaev, T. N. Granovsky, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, N. Kh. Ketcher, V. P. Botkin, P. V. Annenkov, E. F. Korsh, K. D. Kavelin.
The Westerners were joined by such writers and publicists as N. A. Nekrasov, I. A. Goncharov, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev, A. F. Pisemsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Slavophilism is a literary and philosophical movement of social thought that took shape in the 40s of the 19th century, whose representatives affirm a special type of culture that arose on the spiritual soil of Orthodoxy, and also deny the thesis of Westerners that Peter the Great returned Russia to the fold of European countries and it must go through this path in political, economic and cultural development.
The trend arose in opposition to Westernism, whose supporters advocated Russia's orientation toward Western European cultural and ideological values.
2)
P.S. The Decembrists would have approached the first question

The formation of the Russian Empire took place on October 22, 1721 according to the old style, or November 2. It was on this day that the last Russian Tsar, Peter 1 the Great, declared himself Emperor of Russia. This happened as one of the consequences of the Northern War, after which the Senate asked Peter 1 to accept the title of Emperor of the country. The state received the name “Russian Empire”. Its capital became the city of St. Petersburg. During all this time, the capital was moved to Moscow for only 2 years (from 1728 to 1730).

Territory of the Russian Empire

When considering the history of Russia of that era, it is necessary to remember that at the time of the formation of the empire, large territories were annexed to the country. This became possible thanks to the successful foreign policy of the country, which was led by Peter 1. He created a new history, a history that returned Russia to the number of world leaders and powers whose opinions are worth taking into account.

The territory of the Russian Empire was 21.8 million km2. It was the second largest country in the world. In first place was the British Empire with its numerous colonies. Most of them have retained their status to this day. The country's first laws divided its territory into 8 provinces, each of which was governed by a governor. He had full local power, including judicial power. Subsequently, Catherine 2 increased the number of provinces to 50. Of course, this was done not through the annexation of new lands, but through fragmentation. This greatly increased the state apparatus and quite significantly reduced the efficiency of local government in the country. We will talk about this in more detail in the corresponding article. It should be noted that at the time of the collapse of the Russian Empire, its territory consisted of 78 provinces. The largest cities in the country were:

1. Saint Petersburg.
2. Moscow.
3. Warsaw.
4. Odessa.
5. Lodz.
6. Riga.
7. Kyiv.
8. Kharkiv.
9. Tiflis.
10. Tashkent.

The history of the Russian Empire is full of both bright and negative moments. This time period, which lasted less than two centuries, included a huge number of fateful moments in the fate of our country. It was during the period of the Russian Empire that the Patriotic War, campaigns in the Caucasus, campaigns in India, and European campaigns took place. The country developed dynamically. The reforms affected absolutely all aspects of life. It was the history of the Russian Empire that gave our country great commanders, whose names are on the lips to this day not only in Russia, but throughout Europe - Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov and Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. These famous generals forever inscribed their names in the history of our country and covered Russian weapons with eternal glory.

Map

We present a map of the Russian Empire, a brief history of which we are considering, which shows the European part of the country with all the changes that occurred in terms of territories over the years of the existence of the state.

Population

By the end of the 18th century, the Russian Empire was the largest country in the world by area. Its scale was such that the messenger, who was sent to all corners of the country to report the death of Catherine 2, arrived in Kamchatka 3 months later! And this despite the fact that the messenger rode almost 200 km every day.

Russia was also the most populous country. In 1800, about 40 million people lived in the Russian Empire, most of them in the European part of the country. Just under 3 million lived beyond the Urals. The national composition of the country was motley:

• East Slavs. Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians (Little Russians), Belarusians. For a long time, almost until the very end of the Empire, it was considered a single people.
• Estonians, Latvians, Latvians and Germans lived in the Baltic states.
• Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Karelians, Udmurts, etc.), Altai (Kalmyks) and Turkic (Bashkirs, Tatars, etc.) peoples.
• Peoples of Siberia and the Far East (Yakuts, Evens, Buryats, Chukchi, etc.).

As the country developed, some of the Kazakhs and Jews who lived on the territory of Poland became its subjects, but after its collapse they went to Russia.

The main class in the country were peasants (about 90%). Other classes: philistinism (4%), merchants (1%), and the remaining 5% of the population were distributed among the Cossacks, clergy and nobility. This is the classic structure of an agrarian society. And indeed, the main occupation of the Russian Empire was agriculture. It is no coincidence that all the indicators that fans of the tsarist regime love to be so proud of today are related to agriculture (we are talking about the import of grain and butter).

By the end of the 19th century, 128.9 million people lived in Russia, of which 16 million lived in cities, and the rest in villages.

Political system

The Russian Empire was autocratic in its form of government, where all power was concentrated in the hands of one person - the emperor, who was often called, in the old manner, the tsar. Peter 1 laid down in the laws of Russia precisely the unlimited power of the monarch, which ensured autocracy. Simultaneously with the state, the autocrat actually ruled the church.

An important point is that after the reign of Paul 1, autocracy in Russia could no longer be called absolute. This happened due to the fact that Paul 1 issued a decree according to which the system of transfer of the throne established by Peter 1 was abolished. Peter Alekseevich Romanov, let me remind you, decreed that the ruler himself determines his successor. Some historians today talk about the negative aspects of this document, but this is precisely the essence of autocracy - the ruler makes all decisions, including about his successor. After Paul 1, the system returned in which the son inherits the throne from his father.

Rulers of the country

Below is a list of all the rulers of the Russian Empire during the period of its existence (1721-1917).

Rulers of the Russian Empire

Emperor	Years of reign
Peter 1	1721-1725
Ekaterina 1	1725-1727
Peter 2	1727-1730
Anna Ioannovna	1730-1740
Ivan 6	1740-1741
Elizabeth 1	1741-1762
Peter 3	1762
Ekaterina 2	1762-1796
Pavel 1	1796-1801
Alexander 1	1801-1825
Nikolay 1	1825-1855
Alexander 2	1855-1881
Alexander 3	1881-1894
Nikolay 2	1894-1917

All the rulers were from the Romanov dynasty, and after the overthrow of Nicholas 2 and the murder of himself and his family by the Bolsheviks, the dynasty was interrupted and the Russian Empire ceased to exist, changing the form of statehood to the USSR.

Key dates

During its existence, which is almost 200 years, the Russian Empire experienced many important moments and events that had an impact on the state and people.

• 1722 – Table of Ranks
• 1799 – Suvorov’s foreign campaigns in Italy and Switzerland
• 1809 – Annexation of Finland
• 1812 – Patriotic War
• 1817-1864 – Caucasian War
• 1825 (December 14) – Decembrist uprising
• 1867 – Sale of Alaska
• 1881 (March 1) assassination of Alexander 2
• 1905 (January 9) – Bloody Sunday
• 1914-1918 – First World War
• 1917 – February and October revolutions

Completion of the Empire

The history of the Russian Empire ended on September 1, 1917, old style. It was on this day that the Republic was proclaimed. This was proclaimed by Kerensky, who by law did not have the right to do this, so declaring Russia a Republic can safely be called illegal. Only the Constituent Assembly had the authority to make such a proclamation. The fall of the Russian Empire is closely connected with the history of its last emperor, Nicholas 2. This emperor had all the qualities of a worthy person, but had an indecisive character. It was because of this that the unrest occurred in the country that cost Nicholas himself 2 his life, and the Russian Empire its existence. Nicholas 2 failed to strictly suppress the revolutionary and terrorist activities of the Bolsheviks in the country. There were indeed objective reasons for this. The main one is the First World War, in which the Russian Empire was involved and exhausted in it. The Russian Empire was replaced by a new type of government system in the country - the USSR.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Russia took the path of modernization, the formation and development of an industrial society. The main goal of the Russian version of modernization was the desire to catch up with industrial countries in its development, to prevent too much lag in the military-economic field, to join the world economic system and thus defend its national interests.

In terms of its level of development, speed and intensity of industrialization, Russia belonged to agrarian-industrial countries, with a weak-average level of development of capitalism (82% of the population was employed in agriculture). The Russian economy was characterized by:

• “Catching up”, accelerated nature of the development of capitalism.
• The formation of a multi-structure economy (along with capitalist ones, pre-capitalist, feudal and patriarchal structures were also preserved).
• Many initiatives in economic development were initiated not by society, but by the state.
• Unstable, crisis development of society.

In 1891-1900, Russia made a giant leap in its industrial development. Over the decade, the volume of industrial production in the country doubled, in particular the production of capital goods tripled. During the industrial boom, the length of railway tracks in Russia tripled (to 60 thousand km), iron smelting increased five times, and coal mining in the Donbass increased 6 times.

Russia produced as many cars as it imported. The country has become the world's leading grain exporter. As a result of the financial reform carried out by S.Yu. Witte, in 1900 Russia’s huge external debt was paid off, inflation was stopped, and the gold equivalent of the ruble was introduced.

In Russia, monopolies are being created (cartels, syndicates, trusts) - large economic associations that have concentrated in their hands a significant part of the production and sale of goods. Among them: “Prodamet”, “Roof”, “Nail”, “Produgol”, “Prodvagon”, etc.

A characteristic feature of industrial development has been the widespread attraction of foreign investment.

An important feature of the capitalist evolution of Russia was that the autocracy played a significant role in economic life and the formation of the basic elements of new relations. It created state-owned factories (military production), which were withdrawn from the sphere of free competition, controlled railway transport and road construction, etc. The state actively contributed to the development of domestic industry, banking, transport and communications.

Despite the accelerated development of industry, the agricultural sector remained leading in terms of its share in the country's economy. Russia ranked first in the world in terms of production volume: its share was 50% of the world rye harvest, 25% of world grain exports. At the same time, it should be noted that the agricultural sector of the economy was only partially involved in the modernization processes.

New forms of management were introduced on the lands of landowners and wealthy peasants. The vast majority of peasants used old, ineffective forms of farming. In the village, semi-serf and patriarchal remnants remained: a communal system of land ownership and land use. It was the problems of agriculture that became core in the economic, social and political life of the country at the beginning of the century.

Thus, Russia has embarked on the path of modernization, lagging behind Western European countries. Autocracy and the preservation of administrative-feudal methods of management hampered economic development.

The process of formation in Russia of social strata of the population inherent in industrial societies occurred at a rapid pace. As evidenced by the 1897 census, the total number of inhabitants of the empire was 125.5 million people. On January 1, 1915, it reached 182 million 182 thousand 600 people. During this period, the number of those who lived by selling their labor increased one and a half times and amounted to almost 19 million people. The number of entrepreneurs grew even more rapidly. Urban population indicators were closely related to the expansion of capitalist production. Over the same period, the number of city residents increased from 16.8 to 28.5 million people.

Despite these changes, in Russia the basis of the social structure was still made up of fortunes - closed groups of people endowed with certain rights and responsibilities that were hereditary in nature. The ruling class remained the nobility (about 1% of the population).

The nobility was divided into two categories: tribal and personal. The ancestral was hereditary, the personal was not. Although the role of the nobility in the economic life of the country decreased, it still remained a privileged class. The privileged classes included honorary and noble citizens - the elite of the townspeople.

A special state was the clergy and guild merchants. A significant part of the urban population were burghers - shopkeepers, artisans, workers and office workers.

A special military-service class was made up of Cossacks - Don, Kuban, Ural. They had the right to land, served military service, and preserved certain traditions of the Cossack environment.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the bourgeoisie, working class, and intelligentsia were rapidly forming in Russia.

The bourgeoisie becomes a powerful class from an economic point of view. The bourgeoisie was formed from different social strata, owned enterprises, land plots, and concentrated large capital in its hands.

However, in Russia the bourgeoisie, unlike the countries of Western Europe, has not turned into a powerful independent force. This was explained by the fact that the Russian bourgeoisie turned out to be dependent not on the market for raw materials and goods, but on the government, which acted as a monopolist in these markets. High profits in production were associated with the ability to obtain government orders and subsidies for its implementation. These conditions required from the capitalist not the qualities of an entrepreneur, but rather a courtier who knows all the loopholes at court.

As a result, the capitalist valued not freedom, but close relationships with the emperor and the government. This situation contributed to an increase in the share and autonomous functioning of a special social group - the bureaucracy. The economic basis for the growth of the role of this segment of the population was the presence of a widely ramified state capitalist economy: banks, railways, state-owned factories, state lands. Before 1917, there were up to 500 thousand officials of various ranks in the country.

The peasantry, as before, made up the majority of the country's population. However, the penetration of commodity-money relations into the village contributed to its stratification. One part of the peasants joined the ranks of the proletariat, the other expanded their farms, gradually ousting the landowners from the agricultural market and buying up their lands.

The peculiarities of the “reformation” of social strata of the population in Russia caused serious contradictions both within a certain segment of the population and between individual strata (nobility - bourgeoisie, nobility - peasantry, bourgeoisie - workers, government - people, intelligentsia - people, intelligentsia - government, etc. .). The immaturity of the middle strata, the gap between the “tops” and the “bottoms” determined the unstable, unstable position of Russian society.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia remained an autocratic monarchy. Representative bodies of power were not formed. All legislative, administrative and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. Most subjects considered autocratic power familiar and stable. Proximity to the monarch created for many real opportunities to influence the political and economic life of the country.

The highest state institutions “State Council” and “Senate” served as advisory bodies. By 1905, Russia did not have a unified government. Each minister reported directly to the emperor on the affairs of his ministry.

The judicial system as a whole is based on the judicial reform of the 60s of the 19th century. The Police Department was responsible for protecting state security. The army was an important state institution. The country had universal conscription, although at the same time there was a developed system of benefits and deferments from conscription.

Local self-government - zemstvos - played a significant role in organizing the life of the country. Zemstvos were elected by representatives of peasants, landowners and townspeople. Their areas of activity covered almost all issues of local life.

The events of the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907 forced the authorities to transform the existing political system. The Manifesto of October 17, 1905 “On Improving the Fundamentals of Public Administration” gave the population freedom of conscience, speech, assembly, and unions. Soon the law on elections to the State Duma was adopted.

The Duma participated in the development of bills, considered the state budget, discussed the issue of building railways and founding joint-stock companies. Later the State Council was reformed, becoming the upper legislative chamber. She received the right to approve or reject laws approved by the Duma.

Despite the preservation of legislative power, a step was taken towards liberalization of society. The new political system was characterized by the fact that legislative power belonged to the emperor and the bicameral parliament, the highest executive power belonged to the emperor and the ministers responsible to him, and the highest judicial and supervisory power belonged to the Senate.